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Introducing Translation Studies, Theories and Applications
di J. Munday
CHAPTER 1
JAKOBSON CATEGORIES:
intralingual: translation in the same language;
interlingual: translation between two different language;
intersemiotic: translation of verbal signs into non-verbal sign systems.
THE HOLMES/TOURY MAP:
Holmes's paper was important for the development of the field as a distinct discipline. He draws attention to the limitation imposed because of translation research; he stressed the need to have other communication channels, cutting the trasitional disciplines. He also described what translation studies covers; he subdivided the translation studies as pure and applied:
'Pure' when:
decription of the phenomena of translation;
establishment of general principles.
Theories:
medium-restricted theories;
area-restricted theories;
rank-restricted theories;
text-type restricted theories;
time-restricted theories;
problem-restricted theories.
'Applied' when: application to the practice of translation:
translation trainig;
translation aids;
translation criticism.
VAN DOORSLEAR MAP:
Transcription became the act of translating, subdivided into:
lingual mode;
media;
mode;
field.
Translation studies is subdivided into:
approaches;
theories;
research methods;
applied translations studies.
CHAPTER 2
LITERAL OR FREE? / WORD-FOR-WORD OR SENSE-FOR-SENSE?
The distinction between 'word-for-word' and 'sense-for-sense' goes back to Cicero and St. Jerome.
Cicero from his own said he doesn't translate as an interpreter, but as an orator:
interpreter, literal translator;
orator, who produce a speach that move the listeners.
St. Jerome:
literal, word-for-word;
free, sense-for-sense.
He prefers sense-for-sense translations and rejects word-for-word.
CHINESE TRANSLATION OF BUDDHIST SUTRAS
A lot of projects translating oral texts into written form. Initially with a word-for-word strategy, later modified.
Dΰo' an:
identifies five losses translating from foreign languages:
foreigner words totally reversed;
sutras' style changed;
sutras' details cutted off;
a lot of words removed;
the previous becomes the new discourse.
These change involves:
copying with the flexibility of Sanscrit by revising to a standard Chinese order;
enhancemet of literariness adapting it to an elegant Chinese style;
omission of exclamation;
reduction of paratextual commentaries;
ensure more logical and linear discourse.
TRANSLATION PRACTICE IN BAGHDAD
During Abbasid:
Two methods for translating were adopted:
higly literal, translating Greek words with an equivalent in Arab;
sense-for-sense.
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION IN EUROPE
Humanist advances in the study of ancient Hebrew and Greek.
Use of translation of the Bible to challenge the Roman Catholic Church and promote the vernacular languages.
German → Luther
England → Tyndale
France → Dolet
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT MORE SYSTEMATIC THEORY
Dolet:
Sets out five principles (for translator):
understand the sense;
perfect knowledge of both source and target languages;
avoid word-for-word;
avoid latinate and unusual forms;
avoid clumsiness.
Dryden:
Three categories of translation:
metaphrase, literal translation;
paraphrase, sense-for-sense translation;
imitation, an adaptation.
Tytler:
Three general laws:
translation should give a complete trascription of the original ideas;
style and manner should be the same;
translation should have all the case of the original.
SCHLEIERMACHER AND THE FOREIGN
Distingued two different kind of works:
'dolmetscher', commercial texts;
'űbersetzer', scholary and artistic texts.
His strategy was to move the reader toward the writer.
Consequences of this approach:
impressions recived depends from the translator;
a special language of translation may be necessary.
CHAPTER 3
EQUIVALENCE IN MEANING
Saussure:
langue;
parole.
Sign: arbitrary.
Jakobson:
Examinies the types of translation.
Difference between 'signifier' and 'signified', which togethe create the linguisti sign: the signifier is the one who denotes the concept, while the signified is the 'image' that a certain word produce.
Says that ther's ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units.
Transibility: linked to relativity / determinism or universalism.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEANING / FORMAL AND DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE
Nida incorporates Chomsky's generative model into his sience of translation, analyising the surface of structure of the source text into basic elements of the deep structure, transferred in the translation process and then restructured into the surface structure of the target text.
Nida and Taber → define a scentific approach to meaning:
linguistic meaning;
referential meaning: dictionary meaning;
emotive meaning: (or connotative) the association a word produces.
Two basic orientation replaced the old terms (as literal, free etc.):
formal equivalence: focuses on the message itself;
dynamic equivalence: the principle of the equivalence effect.
SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION
Newmark replaced old terms with:
communicative translation: attempts to produce on the reaser the same effect of the orginal;
semantic translation: attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original.
These two are similar to Nida's formal and dynamic equivalence.
KOLLER'S DOUBLE LINKAGE
Important work to refine the concept of equivalence was carried out by Koller, who examinied the concept of equivalence more closely to his 'correspondence', the competence in the foreign language.
He identifies five types of equivalence relation:
denotative equivalence: extralinguistic content of a text;
connotative equivalence: lexical choice between near-synonims;
text-normative equivalence: text types;
pragmatic equivalence: oriented towards the reciver of a text;
formal equivalence: the form and aesthetics of a text.
CHAPTER 4
TRANSLATION STRATEGIES AND PROCEDURES
strategy: is an overall orientation of the translator;
procedure: a specific technique used by the translator.
CATFORD AND 'TRANSLATION SHIFTS'
Translation shifts are "departures from formal correspondence in the process of going form the source language to the target language".
Two kinds of translation shifts:
a level shift, expressed by grammar and lexis;
category shifts.
Taxonomies are classifications of such shifts in an attempt to uncover the translation procedures and strategies.
VINAY AND DARBELNET'S MODEL
Two general translation strategies (as direct and oblique translation, like literal and free) include seven procedures covered by:
Direct translation:
borrowing;
calque;
literal translation.
Oblique translation:
translation;
modulation;
θquivalence;
adaptation.
Supplementary procedures:
amplification and economy;
false friend;
explication;
compensation;
generalization.
servitude: obbligatory transposition due to difference between two language systems;
opinion: non-obligatory changes, may be due to the translator's style and preferences.
THE COGNITIVE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
Observation of the translation process and what skills are required.
Three-stage preocess:
reading and understanding;
deverbalization;
re-expression.
CHAPTER 5
TEXT TYPE AND GENRE
Reiss's systemizad the text type taxonomy as:
informative (encyclopaedia);
expressive (novel);
operative (advert);
The main characteristics of each text type are summarized as:
informative → plain prose method
expressive → identifying method
operative → adaptive method
audio-medial: that supplements the other tree functions with with images, music etc.
TRANSLATORIAL ACTION
Concepts from communication theory.
Interlingual translations are described as translation action from a source text, involving a series of roles and players:
imitator;
commissioner;
ST producer;
TT producer;
TT user;
TT reciver.
Focuses on producting a communicative target text.
TEXT ANALYSIS FOR TRANSLATION
Nord distincts two basic types of translation products:
documentary translation;
instrumenta translation.
Intratextual factor from source text analysis:
subject matter;
content;
presupposition;
text composition;
non-verbal elements;
lexis;
sentence stryctyre;
suprasegmental features.
CHAPTER 6
THE HALLIDAYAN MODEL OF LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE
Hallidayan's model is based on what he terms systematic functional grammar.
The social context affects the language choice identifing by:
what's being written about (field);
what's comunicating (tenor);
the mode of communication (mode).
HOUSE'S MODEL OF TRANSLATION QUALITY
House oriented skops and other approaches towards the target audience.
Her revisied model incorporates some categories into an openly register. This comparative model is focused on lexical, syntactic and textual means used to construct the Register.
House also defines overt and cover translation:
overt translation: target text doesn't pretend to be an original;
covert translation: a translation which pretend to be a source text.
COHESION
Cohesion is produced by grammatical and lexical link and helps to hold these together.
Five types:
reference;
substitution;
ellipsis;
conjuction:
lexical cohesion.
PRAGMATICS
The study of language in use. It's the study of meaning, not as generated by the linguistic system, but as conveyed and manipulated by partecipans in a communicative situation.
Concepts:
coherence;
presupposition;
implicature.
CHAPTER 7
POLYSYSTEM THEORY
A polysystem is: "a multiple system which intersect with each system using concurrently different options".
It's the relationship betweet literary systems and this interaction is called dynamic hierarchy.
A translated literature can occupy a primary and a secondary postion.
The primary position when:
a young literature is being established;
a literature is weak;
there's a critical turning point in literary history that changes the models.
But if a translated literature assumes a secondary position rapresents a peripheral system.
TOURY AND DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION STUDIES
The descriptive translation studies by Toury identifies three-phase methodology for systematic according to the identification of the text and textual analysis.
For Toury tanslations are: facts of target culture, governed by norms.
The basic norms refers to a general choice made by translator: if a translation is towards the source norms, the target text will be adequate; if a translation is toward the target culture norms, the targhet text will be acceptable.
Toury also defines his own univerlsals of translation and the laws he proposed are:
law of growing standardization;
law of interference;
law of reducted control over linguistic realization.
CHAPTER 8
TRANSLATION AS REWRITING
For Lefever the basi process of rewriting is a work in translation, histography, anathologization, criticism and editing.
He said that translation is the most recognizable type of rewriting anc potentially the most influential.
The Lefever's circle show us on what the literary system is made-up. So in the inner circle there are the professional (who works with the system as academics, theachers, translator etc.) while the outer circle shows the patronage outside the system.
TRANSLATION AND GENDER
Simon saw a language of sexism in translation studies, wamen was repressed in society and literature.
Feminist translation theory identified and critiqued the concepts which relegates both women and translation to the bottom of the social and literary ladder.
Simon revalued the contribuition that women translators made to translation, she discussed the disorientation in the translation of the Franch feminist theory and looked at feminist translation of the Bible.
POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION THEORY
During the colonialism, translations eliminates the identity of the individuals and cultures that are politically loss powerful, leading a standardization.
English had generally used to construct a rewitten image during the colonization, standardizating the truth whith the imposition of ideological values.
In general, post colonialism translator must call into question every aspect of colonialism and liberal nationality.
The postcolonial living between nations as emigrants is called, in the Postcolonial translation theory, 'transnational'.
CHAPTER 9
VENUTI AND THE VISIBILITY OF THE TRANSLATOR
Venuti describes the translator's situation and activity in contemporary British and America cultures with the term 'invisibility', produced by:
the way translators tend to translate;
the vay the translated text are read in the target culture.
For Venuti there are two types of translation:
domestication, that tries to reduce the foreignness of the target text;
foreignization, closer to the source text structure and syntax.
BERMAN AND THE NEGATIVE ANALYTIC
Berman tried to understand how much translation assimiliates a foreign text and how far it signals differens had attached the attention.
He describe translation as an experience in different senses: for the target culture and for the foreign text.
He identified twelve deforming tendence of translation, called 'negative analytic':
razionalization;
expantion;
ennoblement;
quanlitative;
quantitative;
the destruction of rythms;
the destruction of underlying network of signification;
the destruction of linguistic patternings;
the destruction of vernacular networks;
the destruction of expressions and idioms;
the effacement of the superimposition of languages.
'Positive analytic' proposes the type of transaltion to render the foreign in the target text.
THE SOCIOLOGY OF TRANSLATION
Boudieu theorized the role of the translator in some concepts:
field;
habitus;
capital;
illusio.
CHAPTER 10
STEINER'S HERMENEUTIC MOTION
Steiner's hermeneutic approach was an investigationof what it means to undestand a piec of a speech, trying to explain the process in terms of a general model of meaning.
Steiner initially focussed on the psychological and intellectual functioning, and he discussedthe process of meaning and understanding.
He began to talk about translation not as a science but as an exact art.
The hermeneutic motion consists in four moves:
initiative trust, something in the source text that can be understood;
aggression, an invasive move;
incorporation, ho the source text meaning is brought into the target language;
compensation, the source language leaves the original.
Resistant difference occurs in two ways:
the translator experiences the foreign language differently from his own;
the relation between each languages (source and target), impose is differences.
DECONSTRUCTION
The movement has its origin in France in the '60s.
Decontruction suspend all that we take for garanted about language, experience and the normal possibilities of communication.
Reject the primacy of meaning.
ABUSIVE FIDELITY
Deridda was interested about the methods used to translate into English.
diffθrance;
dθtour;
relevant tranlation.
Venuti's translationg strategy may be considered an example of abusive fidelity. This involves risk-taking and experimentation with expressive and rhetorical patterns of language, supplementig the source text.
For Lewis, the translator needs to compensate for the losses in translation, considered an abuse.
The experimental translation strategy that he proposed is relevant to identify the difficulties in translation.
CHAPTER 11
AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION STUDIES
Initially audiovisual translation was overlooked by translation theory.
Titform and Mayord coined the term 'constrained translation': non-verbal elements that marked out audiovisual translation.
This was a still virgin area of research were film establishes a multi-channel and multi-code communication:
verbal;
literary;
proxemic/kinetic;
cinematic.
Audiovisual language transfer describes interlingual subtitoling as a form of 'diagonal translation'.
Gambier identificate the different types of activity that will replace older translation categories:
interlingual subtitoling;
bilingual subtitoling;
intralingual subtitoling;
dubbing;
voice-over;
surtitoling;
audiodescription.
Fansub: practice of amateur subtitoling and distribution of media.
Video game translation: a blend of audiovisual translation and software localization.
CORPOUS-BASED TRANSLATION STUDIES
In 1998 the corpus-based approach became a 'new paradign' in translation studies.
Corpus typologies:
monolingual corpora;
comparable bilingual corpora;
parallel corpora.
The analysis of the parallel corpora, permits both quantitative and qualitative analysis.
These are descriptive studies.
CHAPTER 12
CONCILENCE IN TRANSLATION STUDIES
Chesterman's simplistic linguistic-cultural studies, classified four 'complementary approaches' to translation:
textual;
cognitive;
sociological;
cultural.
Each of the four approaches has its own objective and generates is own questions and methodologies:
textual → investigates the translation products;
cognitive → investigate the process of translation;
sociological → looks at the role of human agents;
cultural → places translation within a wider context.
Each of this contributes to finding out more about the central object of translation.
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